Eastern White Pine (Pinus Strobus), Stately New World Tree: Maine's and Michigan's State Tree, Ontario's Provincial Tree

Eastern white pines in my yard: sunny repose for Augusta, my Maine Coon kittycat

Three Eastern white pines tickle the sky in my front yard. One stands as a tall, generously endowed sentinel slightly south of where the driveway blends into one of the main thoroughfares in the bucolic county where I reside. When I moved into this house seven years ago, almost the entirety of this pine was cocooned by potato vines (Dioscorea oppositifolia). Tackling the thorny fortress consumed innumerable hours but ended in resounding victory for the stately tree, which immediately lowered its flexible boughs in sweeping bows.

Two other Eastern white pines are situated, side by side, on a straight diagonal northwest of their distinguished compadre. Hugging the edge of the northern parapet of my yard's eastern embrasure, these two pines were stripped of their lower branches prior to my arrival. Jagged stubs betray this earlier butchery. Nevertheless, the branches which nestle just above my head exult in their freedom and attract the late afternoon sunlight in unique, gentle dapples and golden shafts.

Of the two, the more westerly, of course, receives the more generous share of sunlight. In late summer and early autumn, my black-and-white, longhaired, yellow-eyed Maine Coon kittycat, Augusta "Gusty" Sunshine, backs up against this pine's trunk. Angling her uplifted head southwesterly, she closes her eyes and basks in the gentle rays of the day's setting sun.

Gusty's name reflects her heritage. My brother Chas suggested Augusta to honor both Maine, the native state of her breed, Maine Coon cat, and our paternal grandfather, August. My sister Stessily suggested the nickname of Gusty and middle name of Sunshine in recognition of my kittycat's enjoyment in basking in sunlight at the Eastern white pine which, through a fortuitous combination of geography and architecture, receives discernible and palpable yet gentle breezes.

Pinus strobus is commonly known as Eastern white pine or white pine.

Eastern white pine is a New World tree which is native to North America. In Canada the cone-dotted tree ranged natively from the island of Newfoundland southward to the Maritime provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island and westward through the Quebec, west central Ontario, and southeastern Manitoba. In the United States the plenteously-needled tree natively populated the eastern seaboard from Maine in the north to Georgia in the south and stretched westwards through the Midwest and Arkansas. The only Gulf Coast state with a native distribution of Eastern white pine is Alabama.

Pinus strobus var. chiapensis is known commonly in English as Chiapas white pine and in Spanish as pinabete, ocote, and pino blanco. Chiapas white pine is a variety of Eastern white pine which is endemic to, that is, found exclusively in, southern Mexico and in the western and central highlands of Guatemala.

In Mexico Chiapas white pine occurs natively in the three southwestern coastal states of Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Chiapas; the south central interior state of Puebla; and the southeastern coastal state of Veracruz.

In Guatemala this variety is found in the department of Huehuetenango, which borders the Mexican state of Chiapas, and the department of El Quiché, which is bordered by Huehuetenango to the west and Chiapas to the north.

In its northern range limit near Tlapacoyan in Veracruz, Chiapas white pine is found at an altitude of about 1,968 feet (600 meters). Southerly locations witness growth at elevations ranging from 1,640 to 7,381 feet (500 to 2,250 meters). Best growth occurs in well-drained sandy clay soils in mesic (Greek: μέσος, mesos, "middle"), or moderately moist, subtropical or tropical habitats. Habitat rainfall, which mainly occurs from June to September, typically amounts to 59 to 118 inches (1,500 to 3,000 millimeters) annually. Dense fogs may enshroud its habitats at any time during the year.

Habitat differences account for the small dissimilarities between Eastern white pine and Chiapas white pine. Their geographical separation amounts to about 1,243 miles (2,000 kilometers). Molecular data have established a close relationship between them as well as between them and other Mesoamerican five-needled white pines, such as Mexican white pine (Pinus ayacahuite).

Weymouth pine: named for whom?

In England, Eastern white pine often is referred to as Weymouth pine. This common name is thought variously to honor English explorer-shipbuilder-navigator George Waymouth (1585-1612) or Thomas Thynne, 1st Viscount Weymouth (1640-July 28, 1714).

George Weymouth: George Weymouth (or Waymouth) became the first Englishman to explore the mid-coast of modern-day Maine when he embarked on an expedition under the sponsorship of a coterie of English colonial entrepreneurs, including Shakespeare patron Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton (October 6, 1573-November 10, 1624), Sir Ferdinando Gorges (1565-1647), and Thomas Arundell, 1st Baron Arundell of Wardour (c. 1560-November 7, 1639). As captain of a single sailing ship, Archangel, with a crew of twenty-nine, Waymouth set out on March 5, 1605, from Gravesend, which is located on the south bank of the Thames in the southeastern county of Kent, and stopped in his home county of Devon for further provisioning. On March 31, 1605, Archangel sailed out of the deep-water port at Dartmouth to begin the Atlantic crossing. Archangel reached Nantucket Island on May 6, 1605, and Monhegan (Algonquian: Monchiggon, "out-to-sea island"), 12 nautical miles (22 kilometers) from their coastal destination, on May 17, 1605. After completing their exploration of Maine's splendid, pristine coast, captain and crew raised anchor, returning to England on July 18, 1605. Included in their New World bounty were specimen logs and seeds of Pinus strobus.

Lord Weymouth: Thomas Thynne, 1st Viscount Weymouth (1640-July 28, 1714), was appointed as one of eight paid Commissioners on the Council of Trade and Foreign Plantations. As senior commissioner, he presided in the capacity of First Lord of the council from June 19, 1702 until April 25, 1707. In this capacity, Viscount Weymouth is credited with introducing Pinus strobus for cultivation in England in 1705. Presumably his popularization of the stately pine earned him eternal association with his arboreal namesake.

Shortly thereafter Viscount Weymouth had "great quantities" of the New World native planted at Longleat, his family's sixteenth-century Elizabethan country estate in the ceremonial county of Wiltshire in southwestern England.

In 1730 A Society of Gardeners, which included esteemed Scottish botanist Philip Miller (1691-December 18, 1771), noted that in England Weymouth pines were

". . .raised from Seeds in Badmington Gardens several Years since, and hath been growing many Years in the Gardens of the Rt. Honourable the Lord Weymouth, where it hath produced ripe Seeds for several Years." (A Society of Gardeners, Part I, page 57)

Nevertheless, despite his enthusiastic addition of Pinus strobus to Longleat, the Viscount is not regarded uniformly as the first cultivator of the coniferous spires in England.

Early cultivation in England: enthusiasm for coniferous spires in gardens

Duchess of Beaufort: Avid gardener-botanist Mary Capell Somerset, Duchess of Beaufort (ca. December 1630-January 7, 1715) is credited by Scottish botanist William Townsend Aiton (1766-1849), Head Gardener of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew from 1793 to 1845, with the first official cultivation of Weymouth pines. In 1705 the Duchess welcomed Pinus strobus into her extensive garden at the Beaufort country estate, Badminton House, near the market town of Chipping Sodbury, in the southwestern ceremonial county of Gloucestershire.

The New World addition to her exotic garden was included in the Florilegium (Latin: florilegus, "culling flowers"), the Duchess' privately published, two-volume account of her floral holdings. Illustrated by Dutch botanical artist Everhardus Kickius from 1703 to 1705, Florilegium is still held in Badminton House library.

Beaufort House in the West London village of Chelsea was procured in 1682 by Mary's second husband, Henry Somerset, 1^st Duke of Beaufort (1629-January 21, 1700). Long renowned for its extensive, incomparable gardens, Beaufort House had been built in 1520 by Sir Thomas More (February 7, 1478-July 6, 1535), who found a rare peace there for almost a decade and a half before losing his head during the reign of King Henry VIII (June 28, 1491-January 28, 1547). During the Duchess' residence there, she further replenished the gardens there, as well as at Badminton House, with generous offerings from her neighbor, the Chelsea Physic Garden. Founded in 1673, the Chelsea Physic Garden is the second oldest botanical garden in England. The first was founded at the University of Oxford in 1621.

Sir Wyndham Knatchbull: The Fifth Baronet of Mersham Hatch, Sir Wyndham Knatchbull (1699-1749), cultivated Weymouth pines at Mersham-le-Hatch, his family estate near Ashford in the southeastern county of Kent. His stock was renowned for its growth, which began bearing cones with perfect seeds around 1720. Sir Knatchbull's pines are credited with providing the cones for the first sale of Pinus strobus seeds in London in 1726. In fact, Mersham-le-Hatch is recognized as the source for

". . .the much greater number of these trees now in England . . . for, although there has annually been some of the seed brought from North America, yet those have been few in comparison to the produce of the trees in Kent; and many of the trees which have been raised from the seeds of those trees now produce plenty of good seed. . ." (Philip Miller [1759])

Duke of Argyll: Hounslow Heath was once a huge heath encompassing most of the southwestern area of the southern county of Middlesex. In 1722 Archibald Campbell (June 1682-April 15, 1761), Lord Islay, Third Duke of Argyll, purchased 12 acres (0.048 square kilometers) of the heath. With additional purchases, the grounds reached a total of 55 acres (0.22 square kilometers) by 1750. Gardens, which included a greenhouse and an aviary, were established and surrounded with a moat. Reflecting the Duke's fascination with non-native trees and shrubs, the gardens featured Weymouth pines, many of which were seeded from Mersham-le-Hatch. Reflecting their excellent parentage, these coniferous spires

". . .annually produce large quantities of cones, which His Grace [the Duke of Argyll] most generously distributes to all the curious." (Philip Miller [1759])

In 1755, politician and inveterate letter writer Horatio Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford (September 24, 1717-March 2, 1797) praised one of the Duke's Weymouth pines as

". . .that beautiful tree we have so much admired. . .for its clean straight stem, the lightness of its hairy green, and for being feathered quite to the ground." (Michael Symes, p. 146 [1986])

In 1785 Walpole further honored the Duke's proclivity for non-native introductions as contributing

". . .essentially to the richness of colouring so peculiar to our modern landscape." (Mark Laird, p. 83 [1999])

In 1762, after the Duke's death, his nephew, John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute (May 25, 1713-March 10, 1792), moved all trees amenable to transplant to the then-Kew Park garden of the Dowager Princess of Wales, Augusta of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (November 30, 1719-February 8, 1772). Also in 1762 the ten-storied pagoda, designed by Scottish architect Sir William Chambers (February 23, 1723-March 10, 1796), was installed in the Kew garden.

In 1835, the largest Weymouth pine still at Whitton stretched upwards to 81 feet 6 inches (24.86 meters). Its trunk had a circumference of 11 feet 3 inches (3.42 meters).

Today, apart from a few cedars, all traces of this once richly colored landscape have been removed by the onset of rapid development since 1910.

Weymouth pine, an ornamental tree in England, versus Eastern white pine, a commercial tree in the American colonies

In England, Weymouth pine never attained the astounding heights or impressive girth of New World stands. Nevertheless, flourishing as an ornamental tree, the transplant has found enduring appreciation in private and public gardens there.

Because Pinus strobus only reached fullest expression in the New World, the Crown cast anguished eyes towards the vast stands which towered across the colonial landscape. Eastern white pines had lived up to George Weymouth's recommendation, one hundred years previously, as superb wood for ship masts, which were sturdiest when hewn from one entire, unbroken length of timber. The storied, stalwart longevity of those coniferous giants was unsurpassed and, with their diminished growth pattern in the Old World, would never be equalled or even remotely approximated.

Queen Anne and Eastern white pine trees: With incessant demand for repairing and building Her Majesty's ships, stands of Eastern white pine inevitably would thin and possibly vanish. To forestall such an eventuality. Parliament passed on April 20, 1711, in the ninth year of the reign of Anne (February 6, 1665–August 1, 1714), Queen of Great Britain and Ireland as of March 8, 1702, "An Act for the Preservation of White and other Pine Trees growing in Her Majesties Colonies of New-Hampshire, the Massachusets-Bay, and Province of Main, Rhode-Island, and Providence-Plantation, the Narraganset Country, or Kings-Province, and Connecticut in New-England, and New-York, and New-Jersey, in America, for the Masting Her Majesties Navy." Set to take effect on September 24, 1711, the Act forbad any

". . .Person or Persons within the said Colonies. . .to Cut, Fell, or Destroy any White or other sort of Pine-Tree fit for Masts, not being the Property of any private Person, such Tree being of the Growth of Twenty four Inches Diameter and upwards at Twelve Inches from the Earth, without Her Majesties Licence for so doing first had and obtained. . . ."

According to the Act, any culprit, proven guilty through "one or more credible Witnesses, on Oath before one of Her Majesties Justices of the Peace", would be penalized with the forfeiture of 100 pounds sterling for each offense. Fifty pounds of the penalty was payable to "Her Majesty, Her Heirs and Successors." Informers were required to file suit within six months in order to be rewarded with the remaining 50 pounds, which was then levied by a warrant issued by the original Justice of the Peace.

Furthermore, the Surveyor General of Her Majesties Woods in the targeted colonies were required vigilantly to designate, with a "Broad Arrow" mark, all trees deemed fit for the Royal Navy. All thusly marked pines were to be recorded in a Register "to prevent the Destruction of such Trees. . . ."

Eastern white pine trees during the reigns of King George I and King George II: laws and civil disobedience

The Crown's ever increasing concern with appropriating all appropriately sized white pine trees in the American colonies continued during the subsequent reigns of King George I (May 28, 1660-June 11, 1727) and of King George II (1683-October 25, 1760).

White Pine Act of 1722: During the reign of George I as King of Great Britain and Ireland, which began on August 1, 1714, Parliament considered the latest crafty strategem of the obstreperous American colonists in their recalcitrant possessiveness towards Eastern white pines. Since the ideal minimum diameter for masting was 24 inches (60.96 centimeters), loggers targeted white pines before they could be marked with the Crown's broad arrow by felling those with diameters of 23 inches (58 centimeters). As a result, the demand for mast-worthy white pines outmatched the supply.

Consequently, a second White Pines Act was crafted by Parliament and took effect on September 21, 1722. Acknowledging the insufficiency of the Act of 1711 in preserving "white pine trees in his Majesty's colonies" from New Jersey and New York through New England, the White Pines Act of 1722 expanded the prohibition against "cutting, felling, and destroying" to

". . .any white pine trees, not growing within any township, or the bounds, lines, or limits thereof, in any of the said colonies or plantations, without his Majesty's royal licence for so doing first. . ."

Additionally, the act also extended its effects and intentions to Nova Scotia:

". . .forasmuch as there are great numbers of white pine trees, fit for masting the royal navy, growing in his Majesty's province of Nova-Scotia in America. . ."

The definition of eligibility for white pine preservation was further enlarged by decreasing the prohibited diameter. Forfeitures were prorated, for each offense, according to diameter, ranging from five pounds "for every white pine tree, of the growth of twelve inches diameter and under, at three foot from the earth" to fifty pounds "for every such tree, from four and twenty inches diameter and upwards."

White Pines Act of 1729: During the reign of George II as King of Great Britain and Ireland, which began in June 1727, the enactment of the third White Pines Act was necessitated by the clever maneuverings of incensed colonists in several forms of civil disobedience. For example, since the Act of 1722 pertained to land outside of townships, colonists established a steady patchwork of townships which bordered one another in a continuous succession throughout New England so that townships comprised virtually all land.

The third White Pines Act took effect on September 29, 1729. The act's preamble identified the reason for the insufficient preservation of Eastern white pines:

". . .since the passing of the said act, great tracts of land, where trees fit for masting grow, have been, in order to evade the provisions of the said, erected into townships. . ."

Accordingly, the evasion was remedied by expanding the definition of His Majesty's Woods in America to encompass, not only Nova Scotia, New Jersey, New York, and New England, but also

". . .any other province or country in America, that now belongs, or hereafter shall belong to the crown of Great-Britain. . .except. . .the property of private persons, notwithstanding. . .the limits of any township laid out, or to be laid out hereafter, in any of the said colonies or plantations. . ."

Singled out for refractoriness was the province of Massachusetts Bay, which encompassed Massachusetts Bay Colony, Plymouth Colony, Province of Maine, Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Reminder was made to the Charter of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, which was signed by "their late Majesties" King William III (November 4, 1650-March 8, 1702) and Queen Mary II (April 30, 1662-December 28, 1694) in the "third Year of their Reign", on October 7, 1692, at Westminster.

". . .their late Majesties King William and Queen Mary, for the better providing and furnishing Masts for the Royal Navy. . .did reserve to themselves, their Heirs and Successors, all Trees of the Diameter of twenty-four Inches and upwards, at twelve Inches from the Ground, growing upon any Soil or Tract of Land within the said Province or Territory, not therefore granted to any private Person. . ."

In order to make "the said Reservation more effectual", Parliament excluded from preservation for masting only those white pines growing on private property which was granted prior to October 7, 1690, thereby predating the chartered reservation by two years.

Penalties and forfeitures already provided in the Act of 1722 applied for

". . .cutting or destroying any white Pine Trees, of the Diameter of twenty-four Inches and upwards, at twelve Inches from the Ground, growing in any Tract of Land in the Province of New-England or Massachusetts Bay, not granted to some private Person or Persons before the seventh day of October, one thousand six hundred and ninety. . ."

An Eastern white pines episode in New Hampshire: The White Pines Acts, which were observed varyingly, were also enforced varyingly. Appointed by royal Commission on July 16, 1766 as Surveyor General of all His Majesty's Woods in North America, (Sir) John Wentworth (August 9, 1737–April 8,1820) succeeded his uncle, Benning Wentworth (July 24, 1696-October 14, 1770), as British colonial governor of New Hampshire in 1767. Diligent in emphasizing the enforcement of the White Pines Act of 1722, Governor Wentworth selected deputy surveyors who conscientiously inspected saw mills, especially in the Piscataquog Valley, for infractions.

One of the reasons for the unpopularity of the White Pines acts was the fees which colonists were required to pay for required licenses and for the broad arrow marks. Thus, logging was conducted as surreptitiously as possible.

In the winter of 1771 to 1772, a stash of contraband white pine logs, some of which were mast-worthy, was seized at six mills in the southern county of Hillsborough, founded in 1769 and named in honor of Wills Hill, 1^st Marquess of Downshire (May 30, 1718-October 7, 1793), who served as Secretary of State for the Colonies from February 27, 1768 until August 27, 1772. Offenders were named in a forfeiture suit to be heard in the juryless Court of Vice-Admiralty in Portsmouth on Thursday, February 27, 1772. John Sherburn, the deputy surveyor, filed the required printed notice, which appeared in the Friday, February 7, 1772 issue of the New Hampshire Gazette:

"All persons claiming property in the following White Pine Logs, seized by order of the Surveyor General in Goffstown and Weare, in the Province of New Hampshire, may appear at a Court of Vice-Admiralty to be held at Portsmouth, on Thursday the 27th Instant at Ten of the clock A.M. and shew cause why the same should not be declared forfeited, agreeable to an Information filed in said Court:

200 White Pine Logs from 15 to 30 Inches diameter lying at Richards' mill in Goffstown

250 Ditto from 15 to 35 inches diameter at Patty's mill

35 Ditto from 36 to 20 ditto at Dow's mill

140 Ditto from 30 to 18 ditto at Asa Patty's old mill all in Goffstown

270 Ditto from 36 to 17 ditto at Clement's mill in Weare

154 Ditto from 36 to 15 ditto at Job Rowel's mill

Also 74 bundles of Clapboards at Merrimack River

Portsmouth, Feb. 5, 1772"

As representative of the named offenders, Samuel Blodget, Esquire (April 1, 1724-September 1, 1807), hastily journeyed to Portsmouth to seek the Governor’s approval of a proposed settlement. Governor Wentworth promptly bestowed two appointments upon Blodget: firstly, as the agent to effectuate the settlement; secondly, as a deputy surveyor of 31 districts in the Province of New Hampshire and five (Andover, Chelmsford, Dracut, Haverhill, Ipswich) in the Province of Massachusetts Bay.

The appointment as deputy surveyor took effect on Tuesday, February 11, 1772, and required, in addition to seizure and marking of all unlicensed pine timber and prosecution and punishment of offenders,

“. . . you, the said Sam. Blodget . . . to return to me an exact account of your proceedings herein quarterly, from this date or oftener, if occasion shall require. . .”

Mr. Blodget’s vigorous pursuit of his responsibilities and “fidelity in the duties of the said office” was encouraged and, indeed, assured by the compensation for his services being derived from “. . . the fines and forfeitures only, that may accrue or be levied by your means.”

In a letter dated February 24, 1772, Mr. Blodget informed the offenders of his appointments and stated his reluctance to

“prosecute unless obstinate or notorious offenders force it upon me; of which I give you this early notice, at the same time, acquaint you his Excellency has pleased to put it in my hands to make the matter easy to you.”

Three trespassers from Bedford and fourteen from neighboring Goffstown settled so their logs were restored to them.

Offenders from Weare, however, did not sign the settlement. A warrant was issued for the leading saw mill owner, Ebenezer Mudgett. On Monday, April 13, 1772, Mudgett was arrested temporarily by County Sheriff Benjamin Whiting, of Hollis, and deputy John Quigly, of Francestown.

Promising to pay his fine the next day, Mudgett was released while the sheriff and deputy sheltered for the night in Pine Tree Inn, owned by Aaron Quimby (July 22, 1733-December 1810). One of the town's first selectmen, Aaron Quimby had been licensed as a taverner during the October term in 1771 of the Court of General Sessions of the Peace. Ebenezer Mudgett had also been licensed at that time as a retailer of "spirituous liquors." (William Little, p. 20)

The next morning the sheriff and his deputy were awakened in their rooms by an angry group of about twenty men, disguised by blackened faces, who repeatedly thrashed them with tree branch switches. Dragged from their rooms, the sheriff and deputy were seated backwards on their horses, which had been cropped of their ears and shorn of their tails and mane, and jeered out of town.

Eight men, including Mudgett, eventually were charged as rioters and disturbers of the peace. In September 1772 a hearing was held in Amherst before the four judges on the Superior Court of Judicature. Pleading guilty, the defendants were fined 20 shillings apiece plus hearing costs. Historians and reporters of the incident have viewed the lightness of the fine as revelatory of the court's sympathy with the defendants' ultimate cause, which was opposition to the White Pines Act.

Historically, the Pine Tree Riot, as this episode was subsequently known, is seen as one of the precursory actions which culminated in the Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775-September 3, 1783). The Pine Tree Riot is commemorated with a millstone which marks the former site of the Pine Tree Inn. The memorial plaque notes:

1772 - 1928

SITE OF

PINE TREE TAVERN

WHERE TOOK PLACE APRIL 14, 1772

THE PINE TREE RIOT

ONE OF THE FIRST ACTS AGAINST

THE LAWS OF ENGLAND

ERECTED BY TOWN OF WEARE

Giants in the Land

The importance of Eastern white pines as a prime resource for the Royal Navy in pre-Revolutionary War New England is presented in a compelling story, Giants in the Land, by New England historian Diana Appelbaum. Catalogued as juvenile literature yet interesting to all ages, Giants in the Land recaptures with clarity the details of the simple, yet labor-intensive process by which these magnificent pines were conscientiously felled, then precariously transported upslope and downslope of mountains and hills and across flat terrain, and patiently floated down river to saltwater harbors where specially built Royal Navy ships waited to convey them across the great waters of the fearsome Atlantic Ocean to their masted fate in England.

Black-and-white scratchboard drawings by New England illustrator Michael McCurdy effectively evoke the pristine, immense magnificence of New England's colonial forests in which towering Eastern white pines were toppled with great care. Richly textured images juxtapose the massive stature of these fallen giants with the lumbering cavalcade of oxen and loggers as they strain through New England's beautiful, challenging landscape.

Eastern white pines in America, 1785 to 1790: "this ancient and majestic inhabitant of the North American forests"

French botanist François André Michaux (August 16, 1770–October 23, 1855) travelled through the United States and Nova Scotia from November 13, 1785 to February 5, 1790 to assist his father, French botanist-explorer André Michaux (March 7, 1746-October 11, 1802), who was appointed by King Louis XVI (August 23,1754–January 21,1793) to discover trees and plants for the enhancement of forests, gardens, and parks in France. Awed by the stately grandeur of Eastern white pines, François rhapsodized later in his monumental three-volume inventory of the new country's natural resources:

". . .this ancient and majestic inhabitant of the North American forests is still the loftiest and most valuable of their productions, and its summit is seen at an immense distance aspiring toward heaven, far above the heads of the surrounding trees. . . ." (Michaux, Volume 3, p. 93)

Particularly noteworthy to François was the ubiquitous favoritism for Eastern white pine in construction throughout the northern states:

". . .except in the larger capitals, seven-tenths of the houses are of wood, of which three quarters, estimated at about 500,000, are almost wholly of White Pine: even the suburbs of the cities are built of wood. The principal beams of churches and the other large edifices are of White Pine.

The ornamental work of outer doors, the cornices and friezes of apartments, and the mouldings of fire-places, which in America are elegantly wrought, are of this wood. Sculptors employ it exclusively for the images that adorn the bows of vessels. .

. . . .It serves exclusively for the masts of the numerous vessels constructed in the Northern and Middle States, and for this purpose it would be difficult to replace it in North America. . . ." (Michaux, Volume 3, pp. 94-95)

Michaux also noted the large Eastern white pine forests in the mountainous, cold northeastern Pennsylvania counties of Bradford, Susquehanna, and Wayne. Propitiously proximitous to the sources of the Delaware and Susquehanna rivers, these forests supplied Eastern white pine for the entire state as well as for exportation from Philadelphia to the West Indies. Through Pennsylvania's extensive river network of the Susquehanna to the Allegheny to the Ohio River at Pittsburgh, Eastern white pine was transported as well to Marietta in southeastern Ohio at the confluence of the Ohio and Muskingum rivers and to Wheeling in northern West Virginia on the banks of the mighty Ohio. Three quarters of the homes in these three cities were constructed of Eastern white pine.

The thinning of immediately accessible stands of Eastern white pine necessitated ever further inroads into remote old-growth forests. Was this conspicuous diminution a legacy of the exuberant logging by the Crown under the White Pines Acts or a consequence of the "vast consumption of this tree for domestic use, and for exportation to the West Indies and to Europe" by the recently independent, energetic country of the United States? Or perhaps a result of both in succession?

Arriving in 1785, two years after the conclusion of the Revolutionary War and thirteen years after the enactment of the third White Pines Act, Michaux was unsure of the cause:

". . . .I am unable to say with what degree of rigour it was enforced before the American revolution, but for a space of 600 miles, from Philadelphia to a distance beyond Boston, I did not observe a single stock of the White Pine large enough for the mast of a vessel of 600 tons." (Michaux, Volume 3, p. 95)

Maine, the pine tree paradise: According to Michaux, the finest expression of Eastern white pines occurred in Maine. Of all the Eastern white pine timber which was logged from the mid-Atlantic through Nova Scotia, Michaux identified Maine as the top supplier of exported Eastern white pine.

In both Maine and Nova Scotia, Pinus strobus established itself as

". . . the foremost tree in taking possession of barren deserted lands, and the most hardy in resisting the impetuous gales from the ocean." (Michaux, Volume 3, p. 94)

Moreover, Michaux recognized Maine as providing

". . .the finest timber of this species . . . particularly from the river Kennebeck." (Michaux, Volume 3, p. 95)

With its historic and statuesque prominence, the Eastern white pine tree leaves an indelible impression of grandeur which it has maintained over the centuries as the map of the New World has crystallized into two national derivatives of England's Age of Discovery: Canada and the United States of America. The mystique, allure, and promise of these sturdy, gentle giants have wafted memorably as well across the centuries to linger as powerful symbols of the pristine magnificence of the colonial landscape.

As such, it is not surprising that two American states and one Canadian province would select Pinus strobus as their official symbolic tree.

Official tree of state of Maine: Eastern white pine

Images of Eastern white pine trees prevail throughout the official symbols of the state of Maine. Nicknamed "the pine tree state," Maine depicts Pinus strobus on its state flag, coat of arms, and great seal.

Also, Maine's naval ensign, or maritime flag, which differs from its state flag, dramatically highlights Pinus strobus as the ensign's major icon, a green silhouette against a stark white background. Capping the state tree is the state motto Dirigo (Latin, "I direct" or "I guide") in blue, which is paralleled by the infraposed state name Maine in blue as well. Angled obliquely behind the trunk is the second icon, a blue anchor. The two icons effectively convey Maine's historic richness in its natural resource of Eastern white pines and in its leadership in shipbuilding, including canoes.

Further solidifying the state's appreciation of Eastern white pines, the tree's cone and tassel, that is, cluster of needles, and the tree itself were designated as official floral emblem and official tree, respectively, by Resolves effective February 1, 1895 and July 21, 1945.

In the online Glossary of legislative terms supplied by Maine State Legislature's Office of Policy and Legal Analysis, resolves are defined as "Laws having a temporary or limited purpose that do not amend the general public laws."

The temporary status of the white pine tree and its cone and tassel as state symbols was remedied by the Ninety-Ninth Legislature with "An Act to Correct Errors and Inconsistencies in the Public Laws." Effective September 12, 1959, the white pine tree was legally recognized as the state tree, and its cone and tassel, which botanically are not considered true flowers, were designated as state flower. (Maine Revised Statutes Title 1 Chapter 9 Sections 208 and 211)

Official tree of state of Michigan: Pinus strobus

In the upper Midwest, the state of Michigan takes pride in its vast natural resources. Like its terrestrial and maritime neighbor, the province of Ontario, Michigan touches four of the five Great Lakes (Erie, Huron, Michigan, Superior). Moreover, Michigan is riddled with a surfeit of riverine systems which served as an efficient cargo transportation network in conjunction with the Great Lakes which wash against its eastern, northern, and western shores.

As forests were thinning along the eastern seaboard, logging companies turned their sights further and further into America's interior, especially for old-growth Eastern white pines. The "Great Lakes state" presented an ideal juxtaposition of vast, undisturbed pineries with a contiguous riverine and lacustrine (Latin: lacus, "lake") network. From 1870 to the early twentieth century, Michigan held first place in lumber production in the United States.

An active locale was the pineries in Tuscola County on Michigan's Lower Peninsula, known as the Thumb region. Located on level terrain there, the vast pinelands were lucratively owned by Crapo Lumber Mill, based in Flint in Genesee County, which bordered Tuscola along the southwest. For more than a decade the pineries were thoroughly lumbered under the capable direction of Crapo's foreman Thomas Foster (born June 24, 1827). An Irish Canadian who immigrated to Tuscola in 1871, Foster also kept busy raising thoroughbred horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs. The unincorporated community in which he settled and where he

". . . contributed materially to the advancement of its interests. . .",

was named in his honor in 1881. (Portrait and Biographical Album of Genesee, p. 1014).

In his botanical examination of Tuscola County in 1910, Michigan botanist-lawyer Charles Keene Dodge (April 26, 1844-March 22, 1918) noted the relative absence of the once ubiquitous tree:

"Pinus strobus L. White pine. Formerly very abundant on sandy ground and dry ridges. It was very abundant about Fostoria and on dry hills about the small lakes. Now (1910) only an occasional large tree and small shrubs left. Stumps still in place and stump fences give evidence of its former prevalence." (Charles Keene Dodge, p. 169)

The significant contributions of Eastern white pine, as a natural resource to Michigan's arboreal and geographic attractions and as a commercial resource to the state's economic well-being, were recognized with its adoption, effective October 14, 1955, "as the official state tree for the state of Michigan." (State Tree Act 7 of 1955, Section 2.31)

Official tree of the province of Ontario: Eastern white pine

For pioneers in Canada's east central province of Ontario, the soaring Eastern white pines which kept comfortable company with the province's eleven other native conifers were impediments to settlement. Nevertheless, despite vigorous logging, Ontario retains extensive forests, which, at 172,973,767 acres (70 million hectares), account for 65 percent of its land. These vast coniferous stands thrive in a mixed forest expanse which stretches across southern Ontario against the terrestrial backdrop of the province of Quebec and thence westwards and northerly with sweeping vistas of four of the five Great Lakes which border the province: Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Superior.

The intrinsic commercial and natural interplay of the province's twelve native conifers and other arboreal natives with its history was emphasized in 1967 with the creation of the Honour Roll of Ontario Trees by the Ontario Forestry Association to mark Canada's 100th anniversary. With an admirable mission of increasing public awareness and appreciation of the province's trees and forests, the list honors the largest living trees of each of the province's species. Eighty species currently are listed.

Stretching skywards in Haliburton County in southern Ontario, the current recordholder as tallest Eastern white pine stands 148 feet (45.1 meters) in height with a diameter of 5.64 feet (1.72 meters). Its predecessor attained a height of 162 feet (49.4 meters) with a diameter of 4.59 feet (1.4 meters). Growing in the Kirkwood Forest near Thessalon on the north shore of Lake Huron, this giant white pine was toppled by a windstorm in June 1997. Through dendrochronology, or tree-ring dating, the Ontario Forest Research Institute of the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources dated the fallen giant back 355 years to 1642.

Coterminus with Ontario's Bicentennial in 1984, Eastern white pine was designated as the arboreal emblem, or official provincial tree. Royal assent, the symbolic final stage of the Canadian legislative process whereby a bill becomes a law, was given on May 1, 1984 to the Arboreal Emblem Act:

"The tree known botanically as Pinus strobus Linnaeus and popularly known as the Eastern White Pine is the arboreal emblem of the Province of Ontario." (Revised Statues of Ontario 1990, Chapter A. 25, section 1)

Eastern white pine tree: an enduring New World symbol

With their impressive heights and plentiful distribution along the eastern seaboard from Georgia northwards to Newfoundland and inland to the heartlands of the New World, Eastern white pines stunned and astounded Old World explorers, who quickly understand the commercial value of these arboreal sentinels. Centuries later, although Eastern white pines continue to be exploited as commercial resources, their aesthetic participation in vanishing natural habitats is recognized as well. Selection as an official symbol by two states and one province suggests that preservation of Eastern white pines as historic New World natives has considerable value aesthetically, commercially, and ecologically. These endearing giants have endured.

This hub is dedicated to Gusty, a black-and-white, long-haired, yellow-eyed Maine Coon kittycat who inspires all who know her with her peaceful, harmonious appreciation of nature's beauty, especially as expressed in her enjoyment of the setting sun from the comfort of a supportive Eastern white pine tree. My gratitude for Gusty's indomitable humor, boundless generosity, infallible mimicry, venerable wisdom, and unsurpassed grace is profound.

My special thanks to John Colburn, Board of Directors, Weare Historical Society, Weare, New Hampshire, for his courteous, prompt response to my questions about the Pine Tree Riot commemorative marker (location, plaque, etc.)

My special thanks to Sherry Burdick, President, Weare Historical Society, for graciously permitting the inclusion of her photo of the Pine Tree Tavern commemorative millstone into this hub and for promply attaching its image for my use, by way of email coordinated by John Colburn

My special thanks to Christopher J. Earle for courteous, prompt permission to include his invaluable 2005.02.09 Gymnosperm Database photo of Pinus chiapensis, a tall tree at km 96 on Hwy 175 in Oaxaca, between Oaxaca and Tuxtepec

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My special thanks to talented photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

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Copyright Monday, October 3, 2011 by Derdriu