After the Boston Tea Party: Herbal Teas Suggested by Philo Aletheias on January 13, 1774

The bane of the American colonies: "Tea! how I tremble at the baneful Name!"

The Boston Tea Party is an iconic event in the history of the United States. The charismatic phrase, however, was appended at a later time. At the time, the momentous event was known as the Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor. A key incident in the maelstrom of British and colonial interactions, the Boston Tea Party, which took place on December 16, 1773, was not solely about tea but was also motivated by concerns about colonial rights, such as “no taxation without representation.” The dumping of around 600,000 pounds of Bohea tea, imported through the globally powerful East India Company from the Wuyi mountain range in northern Fujian province in southeast China, served as a symbolic protest against

“. . .grievances and distresses with which his Majesty’s American subjects are oppressed. . .by a ruinous system of Colony Administration, adopted by the British Ministry about the year 1763, evidently calculated for enslaving these Colonies, and, with them, the British Empire.” (Constitutional Association, October 20, 1774, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)

Less than one month later, an article on the sensitive topic of tea appeared on the front page of the Thursday, January 13, 1774 issue of the Virginia Gazette. The author signed off under the pseudonym of Philo-Aletheias (Greek: φίλος, philos, “beloved, dear” + ἀλήθεια, aletheia, "truth"). The invective against black tea opened dramatically with a paraphrase of tea-bashing lines penned in 1728 by recently deceased British poet Edward Young (June 1681-April 5, 1765) in "Satire VI: On Women":

The impassioned article opens with a compelling question which situates the historical significance --- perceived at the time --- of the Boston Tea Party:

"Can Posterity believe that the constitutional Liberties of North America were on the Point of being given up for Tea? Is this exotick Plant necessary to Life? Or does our Health depend upon it? Just the reverse. . . ."

After citing such notable current and historical decriers against black tea drinking as Dutch botanist-humanist-physician Herman Boerhaave (December 31, 1668-September 23, 1738) Scottish physician-chemist William Cullen (April 15, 1710-February 5, 1790), and Swiss physician Samuel-Auguste Tissot (March 20, 1728-June 13, 1797), Philo-Aletheias launched into his own excoriation against the disdained custom:

". . .I am bold to say, I never saw a Man or Woman who from Youth was fond of and practised drinking Tea freely that was not rendered a weak, effeminate, and creeping Valetudinarian for life."

The criticism of Asiatic tea was couched in salutary terms as concern for the deleterious effects of tea drinking on physical and mental well-being. Yet, the real reason was derived from political concerns, for the imported tea

". . .not only destroys our Constitutions, but dangers our Liberty, and drains our Country of so many Thousand Pounds a Year. . ."

Nevertheless, rituals are difficult to abandon because they are entangled with habitual activities, which in turn provide some form of comfort and reassurance to their practitioners. In recognition of the strong grip of habit, Philo-Aletheias proposes a homegrown solution:

"But if we must, through Custom, have some warm Tea, once or twice a Day, why may we not exchange this slow Poison. . .for Teas of our American Plants; many of which may be found, pleasant to the Taste and very salutary, according to our various Constitutions."

Philo-Aletheias then lists seventeen tea blends as substitutes for imported tea. The suggested leaves and twigs are all from plants which were eminently familiar to colonial Americans. Considered a necessity in this New World, herb gardens provided produce for the daily pantry, decoration as flowers in the house, and medicine in sickness and in health. The family medicine cabinet was stocked with decoctions, dried leaves, infusions, and tinctures, which were consumed for general well-being as well as for specific complaints. Thus, these seventeen blends were easily available. So, instead of supplementing imported tea, these herbal concoctions would now replace them altogether.

Six blends, comprised of twelve herbs, are featured from this list. Each herb serves as a glimpse into colonial gardens at the time of the Boston Tea Party. Amazingly, many of these herbs are still familiar over two and one-third centuries later.

My Liberty Tea garden: For me, they constitute my Liberty Tea garden, which reminds me every day of the liberties which early settlers in this vast, beautiful new land wanted to bequeath to all who ever live between America's shores.

Blend number 1: "Sassafras Root, sliced thin and dried, with Raspings of Lignumvite, makes a Tea exceedingly agreeable, when made weak*. [*Every Sort of Tea is rendered disagreeable by being too strong.] It beautifies and smoothes the Complexion, prevents Pleurises, Scurvies, and Cachexies, &c."

Sassafras: Sassafras albidum is commonly known as sassafras. Another popular scientific synonym is Sassafras officinale. A native of the eastern United States and the province of Ontario in east central Canada, sassafras reaches a height of 50 feet (15 meet), with a generous spread of 30 feet (9 meters). Oval leaves, which usually are divided into three lobes, have downy undersides. Their dark greenness changes to gold and red in autumn. Tiny, petal-less yellow-green flowers open simultaneously with budding leaves in spring. Fruits ripen as blue-black drupes, which, like peaches, are fleshy encasements of seed-containing pits.

Native American original inhabitants of the thirteen colonies extensively used sassafras as a therapeutic agent. Common remedies included as a blood purifier by the Cherokee, Delaware, and Iroquois and as a febrifuge, to ward off fever, by the Iroquois and Nanticoke.

Lignum vitae: Guaiacum officinale, commonly known as lignum vitae (Latin: lignum, "wood" + vitae, "of life") or tree of life, is a small, slow-growing, New World tree that is the heaviest and densest wood in the world. Its native range includes northern South America, the Caribbean, the Central American subcontinent, Mexico, and only Florida, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands in the United States.

Lignum vitae slowly reaches a height of 20 to 30 feet (6 to 10 meters), with a spread of 26 feet (8 meters). The bark is deeply furrowed. Oval leaves are bright green. Five-petaled flowers open as blue stars. Each bright yellow-orange fruit contains two cells, each enclosing one black seed.

In addition to a Liberty tea from bark raspings, or scrapings, lignum vitae supplies an energy restorative tea with its flowers and leaves. For two centuries an important ethnobotanical remedy decocted --- that is, extracted essences by boiling --- the bark to serve as an effective, albeit temporary, treatment of the symptoms of syphilis.

Blend number 2: "Sweet Marjoram, and a little Mint, relieve the Head and Nerves, strengthen the Stomach, help all the Digestions, are good in Catarrhs and Asthmas, and also giving a good Colour to the Skin, prevent Hystericks, and Melancholy."

Sweet marjoram: Origanum majorana, commonly known as sweet marjoram or knotted marjoram, is a member of the mint family (Lamiaceae). A native of the Mediterranean region, sweet marjoram has become naturalized throughout Europe. The plant's pièce de résistance is its grey green leaves, which flavor culinary dishes in international cuisines. Heads of small white to pink flowers open from late summer to autumn.

In addition to tea, which may be brewed with flowers and/or leaves, sweet marjoram is cultivated ethnobotanically for its essential oil, which is extracted by steaming the flowers. The oil, which is light yellow with a warm, spicy scent redolent of camphor, ages to dark brown. The oil's therapeutic qualities include antiseptic, expectorant, and a stimulant of the immune and circulatory systems.

Mint: Mentha spicata, commonly known as spearmint, is a European native which has been successfully naturalized in the New World. Spearmint is grown throughout the United States, with the exception of North Dakota, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. The Canadian landscape --- with the exception of the eastern province of Labrador and Newfoundland and the three territories of Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon --- is decorated with spearmint.

Spearmint reaches a height of 4 inches (1.2 meters), with a generous spread of 3 to 6 feet (0.9 to 1.8 meters). Wrinkled, ovate shaped leaves grow in pairs on opposite sides of the stem. Cylindrical flowers open as white, pale mauve, or pink from mid-summer through autumn.

In addition to its culinary uses in tea and spices, spearmint is cultivated for its essential oil, which is extracted by steaming the plant's flowers. The United States supplies 70 percent of the 1,600 tons produced annually of spearmint oil. Mainly incorporated as a scent or flavor in internal and external products, spearmint oil invigorates chewing gum, jellies, mouthwashes, and toothpastes with its menthol aftertaste and transmits a fresh, minty aroma to bath products, candles, and perfumes. Therapeutically spearmint, which is milder than peppermint (Mentha x piperita), is preferred in remedies for children to relieve hiccoughs and as an antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative (antiflatulent), febrifuge, circulatory stimulant, and immune system booster. Another ethnobotanical application is an effective insecticide against ants, flies, mosquitoes, and moths.

Blend number 3: "Mother of Thyme, and a little Hyssop, revive the Spirits, and make cheerful; also are good against cold Diseases, Asthmas, Coughs, and Vapours."

Philo-Aletheias notes that this blend is to be avoided during pregnancy. The reason, which was not given, is that, as emmenagogues, Mother-of-Thyme and hyssop stimulate the flow of blood in the pelvic area and uterus and were historically used as abortifacients to induce abortions.

Mother of Thyme: Thymus serpyllum, commonly known as Mother-of-Thyme or creeping thyme or wild thyme, is an Old World native that ranges naturally from northern European southward to northwestern Spain. Other scientific synonyms are Thymus arcticus, Thymus drucei, and Thymus praecox.

Mother-of-Thyme reaches a height of 1 to 4 inches (2.5 to 8 centimeters), with an exuberant spread of 36 inches (90 centimeters). Thick mats of green, oval, hairy leaves fragrantly hug the ground. Tiny flowers open in lavender-purple profusions from late spring to early autumn.

In addition to its colonial culinary uses as tea and in spices, Mother-of-Thyme was prized as a febrifuge by the Munsee (Minisink, "from the rocky land") Delaware, whose migrations during the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries led them from Delaware to Pennsylvania and finally to Ontario, Canada.

Hyssop: Hyssopus officinalis, commonly known as hyssop, is native to southern and eastern Europe. Originally introduced into eastern and central Canada and the northern and central United States, hyssop has become naturalized throughout temperate regions of North America.

Hyssop reaches a height of 18 to 24 inches (45 to 60 centimeters), with a spread of 12 inch (30 centimeters). Its aromatic foliage has lance-shaped leaves. Two-lipped flowers open as violet to blue spikes in late summer.

Hyssop's membership in the mint family (Lamiaceae) is detected in its minty, slightly bitter flavor. Other culinary dishes receptive to hyssop's flavor include pies, salads, and stews.

Another ethnobotanical application of hyssop was as a therapeutic remedy. The Cherokee made a syrup of hyssop leaves and flowers for treatment of asthma, colds, and coughs. An infusion of steeped leaves was imbibed as a febrifuge to break fevers.

Traditionally hyssop has a worldwide reputation as a purifying herb and was placed in vases or suspended over windows or used as a broom to cleanse the air. Hyssop is an essential ingredient in the manufacture of certain liqueurs, such as Absinthe, Benedictine, and Chartreuse. Other ethnobotanical fortes are as an insect repellent against flea beetles (family Chrysomelidae) and cabbage moths (Mamestra brassicae) and most importantly in bath and beauty products, such as cologne, perfume, skin cleansers, and soap.

Blend number 4: "Sage and Balm Leaves (the first dry, the latter green) are gently astringent, stimulating and strengthening, excellent in Fevers, when joined with a little Lemon Juice; good for weak Stomachs, Gouts, Vertigoes, and Cachexies."

Sage: Salvia officinalis, commonly known as common sage or garden sage or kitchen sage, is native to Spain, the Balkans, and North Africa. Sage has become naturalized in southern Europe and successfully introduced into eastern Canada as well as into parts of the eastern and western United States.

Sage reaches a height of 30 inches (75 centimeters), with a spread of 36 inches (90 centimeters). Aromatic, oblong, wrinkled leaves are grey green with white-haired undersides. Flowers open in shades of pink and purple in summer.

In addition to its culinary uses in tea and as a temptingly fragrant spice, sage has a time-honored reputation as a therapeutic remedy. In colonial America, the Cherokee applied an infusion from steeping sage as an antidiarrheal, diaphoretic (perspirative), expectorant, laxative, and sedative. A syrup was also concocted from sage leaves and honey as a respiratory aid to treat asthma. In Connecticut the Mohegan chewed fresh leaves for general well-being and made a tonic from green or dried sage leaves as a restorative.

Noted English gardener-diarist-writer John Evelyn (October 31, 1620-February 27, 1706) pertinently extolled sage's virtues:

"In short, 'tis a Plant endu'd with so many and wonderful Properties, as that the assiduous use of it is said to render Men Immortal. . ." (A Discourse of Sallets)

Balm: Monarda didyma, commonly known as bee balm or bergamot or Oswego tea or scarlet bee balm, is a New World native. Bee balm occurs natively in Canada in the eastern provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec and in the east-central province of Ontario. In the United States bee balm decorates the eastern landscape as far west as the midwestern states of Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri and as far south as Georgia and Tennessee. Two disjunct native populations are found in the northwestern coast states of Washington and Oregon.

Bee balm reaches a height of 3 to 4 feet (0.9 to 1.2 meters), with a spread of 24 to 40 inches (60 to 100 centimeters). Serrated, downy leaves often have red-purple tints. Flowerheads open in red shades in summer.

Bee balm tea acquired the name of Oswego tea in deference to the branch of Iroquois from western New York who acquainted the colonists with the fragrant concoction of Monarda didymus flowers and leaves. The tea's aroma is citrusy and reminiscent of the Earl Grey blend of tea. Earl Grey owes its distinctive aroma to its essential ingredient, the rind of the bergamot orange (Citrus bergamia). Monarda didymus' common name of bergamot recognizes the similar aroma.

In addition to its renowned culinary use as a tea, bee balm garnishes salads with its spectacular flowers and delicious leaves. As a therapeutic remedy, the Cherokee applied a poultice as an analgesic aid for headaches and as a cold remedy. An infusion from steeped leaves was used to treat heart trouble and nosebleeds and also as a febrifuge and as a gastrointestinal aid.

Blend number 5: "Rosemary and lavender, excellent for Disorders of the Head, and Weakness of the nervous System, occasioned by India Teas, or otherwise; they resolve cold Humours, strengthen the Stomach, and rouse the Spirits."

Rosemary: Rosmarinus officinalis, commonly known as rosemary, is a popular cosmetic, culinary, and therapeutic herb that is native to alkaline hills around the Mediterranean Sea. Captain John Mason (1586-1635), who founded the Province of New Hampshire in 1629, is credited with introducing rosemary into New England. Captain Mason, who was Proprietary Governor of Cuper's Cove Colony on Newfoundland's Avalon Peninsula from 1615 to 1621, was appointed as the first Vice-Admiral of New England in 1635 but passed away in England during preparations for his first voyage to the Province.

In the wild, rosemary reaches a height of 7 feet (2 meters), with a spread of 6 feet (1.8 meters). Aromatic, dark green needle-shaped leaves have silvery undersides. Two-lipped flowers open exquisitely as blue or pink-lilac or white in spring to early summer.

In addition to its culinary use in tea and as a spice, rosemary is treasured in potpourri as well as an insect repellent, a cabbage moth (Mamestra brassicae) repellent in companion planting, a disinfectant, an appetite stimulant, a digestive aid, and a restorative of speech after a stroke. Rosemary's reputation as a memory enhancer was poetically recognized by Elizabethan playwright William Shakespeare (c. April 1564-April 23, 1616), whose tragic heroine Ophelia sadly observes:

"There's rosemary, that's for remembrance; pray, love, remember. . ." (Hamlet, Act 4, scene v)

The strength of rosemary's distinctive, woodsy scent in the wild was extolled by English philosopher-statesman-scientist Sir Francis Bacon (22 January 22, 1561–April 9, 1626):

"It is true, that some woods of oranges, and heaths of rosemary, will smell a great way into the sea, perhaps twenty miles. . ." ("834: Experiment solitary touching the corporeal substance of smells," Natural History: Century IX)

Lavender: Lavandula angustifolia, commonly known as English lavender, is native to the Mediterranean region. Another scientific synonym is Lavandula officinalis, Lavandula pyrenaica, Lavandula spica, and Lavandula vera.

English lavender reaches a height of 2 to 3 feet (0.6 to 0.9 meters), with a spread of 4 feet (1.2 meters). Narrow, slightly downy leaves are grey. Spikes of deep purple flowers fragrantly open in early summer.

Just as it was integrated into the English landscape, lavender was also considered an essential plant for the American colonies. Lavender figured prominently in Colonial gardens, beginning with early American botanist-horticulturist John Bartram (March 23, 1699-September 22, 1777), a Quaker whose garden of 8-acres (32,000 square miles; 82,880 square kilometers) in Kingsessing --- now a neighborhood in southwestern Philadelphia --- was founded as the first botanic garden in America in 1728. In fact, with Bartram's appointment as Botanizer Royal for America by King George III (June 4, 1738-January 29, 1820) in 1765, he henceforth sent duplicates of every seed and plant already in his garden and from his ongoing collecting to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

As a tea, lavender, known for promoting relaxation through its soothing fragrance, has long been used as a headache remedy. Other culinary uses include as a floral garnish in salads, as a flavoring in baked goods or ice cream, and as an ingredient in salt, sugar, or syrup. For overall well-being, English botanist John Gerard (1545-1611/1612) recommended daily consumption of "Conserves of Lavender", a preserve of lavender steeped in sugar which is deliciously aromatic, fragrantly tasty, and visually stunning.

Other ethnobotanical uses of lavender include aromatherapy and massage therapy as well as bath, beauty, and household products, such as in candles, potpourri, and moth repellents. Lavender's renowned qualities as an antiseptic and an insect repellent account for its success during the Great Plague of London, 1665 to 1666, in warding off the flea-transmitted Black Death from those who attached bunches of lavender to their wrists. Later lavender's forte as an antiseptic apparently compelled its inclusion as one of seven essential ingredients --- along with greater wormwood (Artemesia absinthum), lesser wormwood (Artemesia pontica), mint (Mentha), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), rue (Ruta), and sage (Salvia) --- in a vinegar infusion that effectively immunized against the bubonic plague that ravaged Marseilles on France's southeast coast in 1720.

Throughout lavender's plenteous applications and uses, the attribute which predominates is its intrinsically winsome fragrance. Even a hint of lavender beguiles while it heals.

Blend number 15: "Golden Rod and Betony. A Tea of these, drank with Honey, are highly corroborative and detersive, to cleanse Ulcers in the Lungs, and Wounds of the Breast, Palsies, &c."

Sweet goldenrod: Solidago odora, commonly known as anise-scented goldenrod or fragrant goldenrod or sweet goldenrod, is a New World native which is found in the eastern United States with a northernmost range in New Hampshire and Vermont. From New England its natural distribution extends southward through Florida and westward through Ohio, Tennessee, Missouri, Oklahoma, and Texas.

Sweet goldenrod reaches a height of 2 to 4 feet (0.6 to 1.2 meters), with a spread of 1 to 2 feet (0.3 to 0.6 meters). Lance-shaped leaves are dark green with translucent dots. An aroma redolent of anise (Pimpinella anisum) is emitted when leaves are disturbed, for example, by bruising, crushing, or rubbing. Daisy-like flowers open in plume-like yellow clusters from late summer into autumn. Appearing in rows on the upper side of branching stems, flowers are one-sided. Fuzzy seedheads, which are pale grey, contain tiny, brown nutlets, each enclosing one seed.

Sweet goldenrod leaves impart a fragrance similar to French tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus) to tea during brewing. This flavor was also captured from leaves and flowers as an additive to cloak the taste of disagreeable medicines.

Sweet goldenrod was respected by Native Americans for its flavorful ethnobotanical applications. The Cherokee infused the fragrant leaves to treat colds, coughs, fevers, measles, and tuberculosis. Roots were chewed to heal sore mouths. Neuralgia was treated by holding an infusion of the root in the mouth.

In the twentieth century, the role of Solidago odora after the Boston Tea Party was cited as one of the reasons for its designation on June 24, 1996 as the official herb of the state of Delaware:

". . . .Whereas, Sweet Golden Rod has many associations with American history and culture, not the least of which is that, following the Boston Tea Party. . .when Americans. . .turned to herbal tea made from Sweet Golden Rod as a substitute, calling it "Liberty Tea. . . ." (70 Del. Laws, c. 386, § 1.)

Betony: Stachys officinalis, commonly known as betony or bishop’s wort or purple betony or wood betony, is a perennial which is a European native. Another scientific synonym is Betonica officinalis.

Betony reaches a height of 12 to 36 inches (30 to 90 centimeters), with a spread of 18 to 36 inches (45 to 90 centimeters).

Oblong, medium green leaves are wrinkled. Flowers open in white or purple or red pink spikes from early summer into early autumn.

In tea, betony bears a resemblance to black tea. This similar flavor was cherished by those American colonists who especially missed the black tea to which they had become accustomed.

Traditionally, betony has a long-respected stature as a soothing and calming ingredient in therapeutic remedies. Its applications range from healing colds to treating asthma, bronchitis, headaches, kidney stones, palpitations, and seizures as well as warding off supernatural spirits. As a powder consumed prior to excessive alcohol consumption, betony was lauded as counteracting drunkenness. Betony was revered in medieval medical matters as an elixir to promote overall well-being and extolled as a cure for any and all complaints.

Liberty teas: a legacy, like liberty, of the Boston Tea Party

Philo-Aletheias noted that many more tea substitutes could be listed but a fear of being perceived as tedious compelled resting this case for herbal teas. In conclusion, the only objection perceived by the author was that

". . .in such a Variety different Tastes or Circumstances would require. . .too many Pots for the Tea Table, and some Trouble. . . ."

Nevertheless, Philo-Aletheias immediately countered:

". . .Teapots are not very dear, and (Thanks to Heaven) we have no unconstitutional Tax laid on them yet. Water is plenty, Sideboards may be had; and, if Teapots fail, what Hardship is it for some to make their own Teas in Mugs or Tankards!"

Moreover, Philo-Aletheias noted that those "Gentlemen and Ladies of the first Rank" who replace this "pernicious Custom of drinking the Asiatick Teas" with consumption of homegrown herbal substitutes

". . .will have the Self-pleasing Satisfaction of having emancipated their Country from the basest Slavery and Tyranny of Custom, and erecting a Monument to Common Sense, which will merit the Praise of unborn Generations."

Those who converted to herbal tea substitutes were fortified by their conviction in the rightness of their cause. Liberty teas were brewed throughout the thirteen colonies.

After independence was gained on July 4, 1776, the importation of teas from China and India was resumed. In some homes in the new country herbal teas were relegated back to the family medicine cabinet. On the other hand, these Liberty teas were permanently adopted by many others, who maintained the habit either as a reminder of the pioneer American spirit or as a beverage of choice which they had learned to appreciate.

The intrinsic value of Liberty teas is underscored by the fact that not one of these ingredients has been forgotten, for they all continue to offer enjoyment or healing as a variety of products not only in the United States but also worldwide.

Philo-Aletheias chose well the quintessentially American character of these Liberty teas.

This hub acknowledges again the invaluable contribution of images and information which were made by Daniel ("Dan") Edward Tenaglia (October 24, 1969-February 13, 2007) through his excellent website, http://www.missouriplants.com/, and expresses appreciation again for the continued availability of this valuable resource.

***** ***** ***** ***** ***** ***** ***** ***** ***** *****

My special thanks to talented artists/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet:

*** Daderot for April 28, 2010 Public Domain photos of Silver teapots made by Paul Revere (1735-1818), Worcester Art Museum, Worcester, Massachusetts

*** U.S.D.A. Natural Resources Conservation Service PLANTS Database maps of Native distribution of Sassafras albidum, Guaiacum officinale, Monarda didymus, and Solidago odora; maps of Introduced status of Mentha spicata, Hyssopus officinalis, and Salvia officinalis; map of Naturalized status of Thymus praecox

*** Dan Tenaglia for missouriplants.com photo of Sassafras albidum

*** Cristóbal Alvarado Minic for May 1, 2009 Flickr photo of Guaiacum officinale, El Playón, Venezuela (Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license)

*** HeXeNeSi for June 27, 2009 Flickr photo of Origanum majorana (Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic license)

*** Javier Martin for Public Domain May 24, 2008 photo of Origanum majorana, Dehesa Boyal de Puertollano, Spain

*** randomtruth for July 24, 2009 Flickr photo of Mentha spicata, Pulgas Ridge Park, San Mateo County CA (Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic license)

*** KingsbraeGarden for June 21, 2007 Flickr photo of Thymus serpyllum and July 23, 2008 photo of Hyssopus officinalis (Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic license)

*** Louisa Billeter (louisa_catlover) for August 19, 2008 Flickr photo of Salvia officinalis, Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, Australia (Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic license)

*** Liné1 for October 28, 2007 photo of Salvia officinalis leaves, Le Conservatoire national des plantes à parfum, Milly-la-Forêt, France (Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license)

*** KingsbraeGarden for July 18, 2007 Flickr photo of Monarda didyma 'Gardenview Scarlet' (Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic license)

*** dnnaya17 for April 19, 2009 Flickr photo of Rosmarinus officinalis (Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.0 Generic license)

*** James Gaither (J.G. in S.F.) for January 12, 2010 Flickr photo of Rosmarinus officinalis, San Francisco CA (Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.0 Generic license)

*** H. Zell for April 12, 2009 photo of Rosmarinus officinalis and June 9, 2009 photo of Lavandula angustifolia (Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license)

*** Kew Gardens for June 27, 2008 Flickr photo of Lavandula angustifolia (Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.0 Generic license)

*** elizabethps for April 19, 2009 Flickr photo of John Bartram's garden, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic license)

*** bgblogging for August 1, 2010 Flickr photo of Lavender bouquet-lavender jelly-lavender salt-lavender rosemary syrup (Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.0 Generic license)

*** Rebecca-Lee for August 16, 2010 Flickr photo of Organic lavender sugar (Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.0 Generic license)

*** Badly Drawn Dad for July 10, 2011 Flickr photo of Lavandula angustifolia 'Maillette', Lullingstone, UK (Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.0 Generic license)

*** vec2267 for August 30, 2008 Photobucket.com photo of Solidago odora**

*** Joan Simon (pastilletes) for July 18, 2007 Flickr photo of Stachys officinalis (Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic license)

*** Eco Heathen for July 10, 2007 Flickr photo of Stachys officinalis, Swanholme Lakes Sites of Special Scientific Interest, Lincoln UK (Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.0 Generic license)

*** starmoon00 for June 25, 2006 and September 7, 2008 Photobucket.com photos of Stachys officinalis

*** Joel T. Fry (Jtfry) for May 2002 photo of East facade of house, John Bartram's garden, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license)

Bacon, Francis (Sir). Sylva Sylvarum, or A Natural History in Ten Centuries. Whitefish, Montana: Kessinger Publishing, 1996.

Beresford-Kroeger, Diana. Arboretum America: A Philosophy of the Forest. Ann Arbor MI: University of Michigan Press, 2003.

Castleman, Michael. The New Healing Herbs: The Classic Guide to Nature’s Best Medicines. Emmaus PA: Rodale, 2001.

Cathey, Henry M. USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map. USDA Miscellaneous Publication No. 1475. January 1990. http://www.usna.usda.gov/Hardzone/ushzmap.html (Last accessed September 14, 2011)

Christman, Steve. “Origanum majorana.” Floridata. (Updated 10/30/03) http://www.floridata.com/ref/o/orig_maj.cfm (Last accessed September 14, 2011)

Colonial Dames of America. Herbs and Herb Lore of Colonial America. Mineola NY: Dover Publications, 1995. (Originally published under the title Simples, Superstitions & Solace: Plant Material Used in Colonial Living. Wethersfield CT: Grounds Committee of the National Society of the Colonial Dames of America in the State of Connecticut, 1970.

Cooper, W.D. The History of North America. London: E. Newberry, 1789

de Sounin, Léonie. Magic In Herbs. New York: Pyramid Books, 1972

Dolmetsch, Joan D. Rebellion and Reconciliation: Satirical Prints on the Revolution at Williamsburg. Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1976.

Evelyn, John. A Discourse of Sallets. London: B. Tooke, 1699.

Fox, Helen Morganthau. Gardening with Herbs for Flavor and Fragrance. New York: Macmillan, 1933.

Hatfield, Audrey Wynne. A Complete Culinary Herbal. Wellingborough, UK: Thorsons Publishers Ltd., 1978.

“Herbal Teas.” Celtic Book of Shadows. (Last edited December 8, 2008) http://celticbookofshadows.wikidot.com/herbal-teas (Last accessed September 14, 2011)

Hussey, Jane Strickland. “Some Useful Plants of Early New England.” Economic Botany, Volume 28 (July-September, 1974): 311-337.

Lacefield, Garry (Dr.), and Dr. Don Ball. Red Clover: Quality Red Clover Seed from Oregon. Salem OR: Oregon Clover Commission, September 2000. http://www.oregonclover.org/pdffiles/redclover.pdf (Last accessed September 14, 2011)

Lis-Balchin, Maria, ed. Lavender: The Genus Lavandula. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2002.

Marcin, Marietta Marshall. The Complete Book of Herbal Teas.

Marden, Michael Patrick. Concealed Authorship on the Eve of the Revolution: Pseudonymity and the American Periodical Public Sphere, 1766-1776. University of Missouri-Columbia Master of Arts Thesis. July 2009. https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10355/6477/research.pdf?sequence=3

McMullan, Philip S., Jr. A Role for Sassafras in the Search for the Lost Colony. http://www.lost-colony.com/Philpaper.pdf (Last accessed September 14, 2011)

Moerman, Daniel E. Native American Medicinal Plants: An Ethnobotanical Dictionary. Portland OR: Timber Press, 2009.

Morrison, Robert. A Dictionary of the Chinese Language in Three Parts. Part the Second: Chinese and English Arranged Alphabetically. Part II Volume I. Macao: East India Co. Press, 1819.

Philo-Aletheias. “Tea.” Virginia Gazette, Number 1162, January 13, 1774.

Rohde, Eleanour Sinclair. The Old English Herbals. London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1922.

“Rosemary.” Sunland Herbs: Grown in the Southwest, for the Southwest. http://www.sunlandherbs.com/about/all-about-rosemary/ (Last accessed September 14, 2011)

Saunders, Charles Francis. Useful Wild Plants of the United States and Canada. New York: Robert M. McBride & Co., 1920.

“Spearmint Mentha spicata.” American Botanical Council Herbal Library: Healthy Ingredients. http://cms.herbalgram.org/healthyingredients/Spearmint.html (Last accessed September 14, 2011)

Tabor, Roger. “Pilgrims Taking Herbs to America.” Herbs in History. 2003. http://www.herbsociety.org.uk/hh-pilgrim-herbs.htm (Last accessed September 14, 2011)

Valnet, Jean. L'Aromathérapie: Traitement des Maladies par les Essences des Plantes, Paris: Le Livre de Poche, 1964.

Copyright Wednesday, September 14, 2011 by Derdriu